In June, S. Somanath, Chairman of the Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) and Secretary of the Department of Space, said ISRO’s launch vehicle capability was three-times the demand. Many experts in the spaceflight sector and beyond interpreted this to mean the space launch market was grim. Mr. Somanath also suggested strong demand was needed for launch vehicles from the domestic Indian market.

India currently has four launch vehicles: the Small Satellite Launch Vehicle (SSLV), the Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle (PSLV), the Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle (GSLV), and the Launch Vehicle Mark-III (LVM-3). These rockets can launch satellites weighing up to four tonnes to the geosynchronous orbit. India also relies on foreign launch vehicles, like Europe’s Ariane V and SpaceX’s Falcon 9, when a satellite weighs more than four tonnes.

At present, the country operates a fleet of satellites with applications in communications, remote sensing, positioning, navigation and timing (PNT), meteorology, disaster management, space-based internet, scientific missions, and experimental missions. It also needs launch vehicles for space missions like Chandrayaan 3 and Aditya L1.

All this makes it look like there are more applications and satellites than there are launch vehicles — which is the opposite of what Somanath mentioned. Where then is the issue?

Supply-driven to demand-driven model

The Indian space programme used to follow a supply-driven model: ISRO would build and launch satellites and then look for customers who needed the services provided by the satellites. When the Indian government reformed the space sector in 2019-2020, it changed this to a demand-driven model. Here, a satellite needs to be built and launched only if there is already demand for it. This may have led to the situation Mr. Somanath mentioned.

There is now a chicken and egg problem. The customer of the services provided by the satellite needs to be educated about the need for the service. The customer will then create a demand for a service that will need a satellite to be launched. This will provide the demand Mr. Somanath is asking for.

Consider the example of the internet. There needs to be a demand for space-based internet in a country already filled with affordable fibre and mobile-based internet services, so a company will launch a constellation of satellites into orbit to provide that service.

The question arises: Who will educate the customer, ISRO or the industry?

Without such educated customers, demand at the scale ISRO expects will not be created. The customers here are not only consumers of space-based internet. These are other companies, government institutions, defence enterprises, and ordinary people including farmers, bankers, etc. So the ‘amount’ of education required is very great.

The other area from which demand is likely to arise is human spaceflight. This includes human-rated launch vehicles that carry humans and supplies into orbit and to destinations like an orbiting space station or the moon. There could in future be demand for space tourism as well.

Launch capability limitations

India’s launch vehicles are also not powerful enough to undertake certain missions like Chandrayaan 4. China used its Long March 5 launch vehicle to launch its Chang’e 4 and Chang’e 5 missions in a single launch. India’s LVM-3 has less than one-third of Long March 5’s capability (28% to be more precise) and will need two LVM-3 launches to launch all the components of Chandrayaan 4.

ISRO will be upgrading the LVM-3 with a semi-cryogenic engine to boost its payload capacity to six tonnes to the geostationary transfer orbit (GTO). The organisation will also need a new launch vehicle — already dubbed the Next Generation Launch Vehicle (NGLV), a.k.a. Project Soorya — to carry 10 tonnes to GTO. But it has only submitted a funding proposal thus far for this project. Other variants of this launch vehicle are expected to raise this vehicle’s lift capacity.

India will also need one more successful flight of the SSLV to be confident about its ability to launch smaller satellites. Smaller satellites are usually experimental and university-built. More success in this domain will encourage space companies to build larger satellites, eventually leading to a demand for launch vehicles.

Launch vehicle economics

All these launch vehicles will need satellites to launch. The heavier vehicles can fulfil some national goals like lunar exploration and a space station while ISRO can use the smaller satellites for technology and capability demonstration. However, the latter will constitute only a small number of launches.

Satellites have a defined mission life. As they get old, they will need to be replaced with newer satellites. This will also create a demand for launch vehicles. However, mission operators like their satellites to live longer and have been improving their lifetimes with software and hardware upgrades. This complicates estimates of the number and frequency of launch vehicles that will be needed.

Launch vehicles are improving as well. In a single launch, the PSLV can deliver multiple satellites in multiple orbits. Rocket stages are becoming reusable, which reduces the cost of building the rocket and increases profitability. ISRO has been building its Reusable Launch Vehicle and vertical landing technologies to make reusable landing stages. It is also making an effort to replace toxic fuels for rocket engines with green alternatives.

Launch vehicle perspectives

Mr. Somanath himself provided a solution for the problem he highlighted. He suggested we need an ecosystem that creates demand for various services, leading to a demand for data, leading to more sources of data (like satellites), culminating in a demand for launch vehicles. The richer the ecosystem, the greater the demand.

The Indian government wants the private sector to create demand among customers and to build and launch satellites. It wants them to look for services to offer customers in India and abroad. It also wants revenue by providing launch services of its own. Finally, the government wants to upskill workers and give them jobs.

However, private companies don’t want the government to be in the launch business. Instead, they want the government to be their customer and to provide rule of law and reliable regulations.

This is because private players desire a reliable source of revenue, which the Indian government can be over a long period of time. There is thus talk of the government being an ‘anchor customer’ helping companies in their early days.

The roadmap here is for the government to exit the launch vehicle business at some point, leaving the companies with sufficient demand for launch vehicles. This is similar to the situation in the U.S., where arms of the U.S. government award contracts to SpaceX, Blue Origin, etc. to execute launches with their payloads.

Thus, the Indian government will absorb the cost of the transition from supply-driven to demand-driven building of satellites and launch vehicles. But it isn’t yet educating its own Ministries and creating some of the anchor demand for satellites and launch vehicles.

Pradeep Mohandas is a technical writer and space enthusiast in Pune.

The story so far: The Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) has said its PSLV-C58/XPoSat mission has practically left zero debris in earth’s orbit. The space agency explained that the last stage of the Polar Satellite Launch vehicle (PSLV) used in the mission was transformed into a kind of orbital station — called the PSLV Orbital Experimental Module-3 (POEM-3) — before it was left to re-enter the earth’s atmosphere instead of floating in orbit once its mission was completed.

ISRO said that after it completed the primary mission of injecting all satellites into their target orbits, the fourth stage of the PSLV was transformed into the POEM-3. It was subsequently de-orbited from 650 kilometres to 350 kilometres, rendering it more susceptible to being pulled towards the earth and burning up in the atmosphere. ISRO also said it “passivated the stage,” meaning dumped its fuel, to avoid an explosion that could have flung small pieces of debris into orbit.

What is POEM?

Developed by the Vikram Sarabhai Space Centre (VSSC) as an inexpensive space platform, POEM uses the spent fourth stage of a PSLV rocket as an orbital platform. Used for the first time in the PSLV-C53 mission in June 2022, ISRO had POEM orbit the earth as a stabilised platform to perform in-orbit scientific experiments with various payloads.

POEM is powered by solar panels mounted on the fuel tank of the rocket’s fourth stage and a lithium-ion (Li-ion) battery. It has a dedicated navigation, guidance, and control (NGC) system to stabilise its altitude along with helium control thrusters. The NGC system has four Sun sensors, a magnetometer, and gyroscopes, and talks to ISRO’s NavIC satellite constellation for navigation. POEM also has a telecommand system to communicate with the ground station.

ISRO first demonstrated the reuse of the spent fourth stage of its rocket in its PSLV C-44 mission in 2019. After satellites were injected in the target orbits, the fourth stage, carrying a student payload called Kalamsat-V2, was moved to a higher circular orbit of 443 km and stayed there, allowing the payload to make observations.

What has POEM-3 achieved?

ISRO launched the PSLV C-58 mission from the Satish Dhawan Space Centre in Sriharikota on January 1, 2024. After deploying the XpoSat satellite in its desired orbit of 650 km, the fourth stage, now called POEM-3, was lowered to a 350-km high circular orbit. The lower a satellite is in orbit around the earth, the more drag it experiences and the more energy it needs to expend to stay in orbit.

POEM-3 featured nine payloads: two each from VSSC and Bellatrix Aerospace Pvt Ltd, one each from the start-ups TakeMe2Space, Inspecity Space Labs Pvt Ltd., Dhruva Space, and from LBS Institute of Technology, KJ Somaiya Institute of Technology, and ISRO’s Physics Research Laboratory, Ahmedabad.

POEM-3 completed 400 orbits around the earth by its 25th day. The payloads were operationalised to perform their experiments during this time. ARKA200, RUDRA, and LEAP-TD completed their respective experiments while the data from WeSAT, RSEM, and DEX were collected after every orbit for further analysis on the ground. Two fuel cells from VSSC demonstrated their ability to generate power. By January 27, 2024, all of POEM-3’s payload objectives were completed.

For two months, POEM-3 prepared for its re-entry while ISRO tracked it with its Telemetry, Tracking and Command Network (ISTRAC) stations in Bengaluru, Lucknow, Mauritius, Sriharikota, Port Blair, Thiruvananthapuram, Brunei, and Biak (Indonesia) and the Multi-Object Tracking Radar (MOTR) at Sriharikota. On March 21, POEM-3 reentered the earth’s atmosphere, meeting its fiery end.

Why is this significant?

With the rise in the number of satellites in orbit around the earth, space debris has become a pressing issue. Space debris in the low earth orbit (LEO) mainly comprises pieces of spacecraft, rockets, and defunct satellites, and the fragments of objects that have deteriorated explosively as a result of anti-satellite missile tests. This debris often flies around at high speeds of up to 27,000 kilometres per hour. Due to their sheer volume and momentum, they pose a risk to several space assets.

The LEO extends from 100 km above the earth’s surface up to 2000 km above. It includes satellites tracking intelligence data, encrypted communication, and navigation. According to ISRO’s Space Situational Assessment report 2022, the world placed 2,533 objects in space in 179 launches in 2022, up from 1860 objects in 135 launches in 2021.

Also Read | Sign of the future: On ISRO’s PSLV C58 mission

Debris also exists, but in smaller volumes, in the geosynchronous orbit (GEO), which is 36,000 km above the earth’s surface. Currently, there are 7,000 operational satellites orbiting the earth at different altitudes along with millions of pieces of space debris. The U.S. Space Command tracks and catalogues space debris larger than 10 centimetres in LEO and larger than 0.3-1 metres in GEO.

In 2022, four on-orbit break-up events occurred, contributing to most of the debris created that year:

1. March 2022: Intentional destruction of Russia’s Cosmos 1048 in an anti-satellite test adding 1408 fragments of debris
2. July 2022: Break-up of the upper stage of Japanese H-2A while deploying GOSAT-2 satellite adding 52 fragments of debris
3. November 2022: Accidental explosion of the upper stage of China’s Yunhai-3 adding 533 pieces of debris
4. November 2022: Break up of the Japanese H-2A upper stage for the deployment of GCOM satellite adding 30 pieces of debris

The latest incident of space debris causing havoc was recorded on March 8 when a chunk of metal believed to be a discarded battery pallet from the International Space Station ripped through the roof and two stories of a house in Florida. The cylindrical piece, weighing almost 1 kilogram, was recorded by the US Space Command while re-entering the Earth’s atmosphere over the Gulf of Mexico, on a path towards south-west Florida at 2.29 PM that day. Five minutes later, the security camera of the house caught the sound of the metal crashing into it. NASA is still investigating the incident.

A major contributor to the rising number of satellites is American launch-services provider company Space X, which is currently also building a large constellation of 12,000 satellites to provide internet services worldwide. The project, named Starlink, has deployed satellites in 550 km, 540-570 km, and 335-345 km orbits and is expected to be completed by 2027. SpaceX has also applied for a second generation of Starlink satellites comprising 30,000 LEO satellites.

As more communication satellites/constellations are launched and more anti-satellite tests are conducted, more on-orbit breakup and collisions occur, producing smaller and smaller fragments in orbit. The number of space objects (debris or functional equipment) greater than 10 cm in size in LEO is expected to be about 60,000 by 2030, per ISRO estimates. Space debris also leads to two major risks – it creates unusable regions of the orbit due to excessive debris, and leads to the ‘Kessler syndrome’ – creation of more debris due to cascading collisions resulting from one collision.

How are space agencies dealing with debris?

Currently, there are no international space laws pertaining to LEO debris. However, most space-exploring nations abide by the Space Debris Mitigation Guidelines 2002 specified by the Inter-Agency Space Debris Coordination Committee (IADC), which the U.N. endorsed in 2007.

The guidelines outline methods to limit accidental collisions in orbit, break-ups during operations, intentional destruction, and post-mission break-ups. They also advise against the long-term presence of spacecraft and launch vehicle orbital stages in LEO and limit their interference in the GEO region.

NASA had instituted its Orbital Debris Program in 1979 to find ways to create less orbital debris and design equipment to track and remove existing debris. Currently, the sixth U.S. Armed forces wing, called the Space Force, tracks space debris and collisions in LEO. However, the agency has not implemented any technology to clean such debris yet; most such ideas are in the conceptual stage.

Similarly, the European Space Agency (ESA) has adopted a ‘Zero Debris charter,’ which includes multiple ways to mitigate space debris. It has also called for zero space debris by 2030 and seeks that other agencies adopt it as well.

On November 5, 2022, China was widely criticised when its rocket Long March 5B plunged into the Pacific Ocean after it broke up upon re-entry. Ranking among one of history’s most damaging break-ups, one of the more than 500 pieces left of the core stage was about 30 metres long and weighed between 17 and 23 tonnes.

Days later, China deployed a large spacecraft designed to de-orbit its defunct spacecraft. The device had a very slim ‘solar sail’ attached to the payload adapter, which when unfolded expanded to a 269 square foot sheet that would push defunct rocket parts towards the earth for faster re-entry

Japan also has a project, called the Commercial Removal of Debris Demonstration (CRD2), to tackle space junk. The Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA) has partnered with private space company Astroscale to assess debris in phase I of the programme. In the second phase, JAXA will launch a satellite to approach the debris and rendezvous with it before capturing and removing it from orbit. Currently, JAXA is conducting tests of this craft.

Private companies in both Japan and China are also competing for debris clean-up contracts. Japan’s Astroscale is developing a method to refuel and repair satellites in space, allowing each de-orbiting mission to operate for longer. China’s Origin Space has launched a prototype robot capable of capturing debris with a large net.

India is working to mitigate space debris. Apart from the POEM missions, ISRO has set up a Space Situational Awareness Control Centre to protect its high-value assets from close approaches and collisions with inactive satellites, pieces of orbiting objects, and even near-earth asteroids. An Indian start-up named Manastu Space is working on technologies like in-space refuelling, de-orbiting of old satellites, and satellite life extension.

• ISRO said that after it completed the primary mission of injecting all satellites into their target orbits, the fourth stage of the PSLV was transformed into the POEM-3.
• POEM is powered by by solar panels mounted on the fuel tank of the rocket’s fourth stage and a lithium-ion (Li-ion) battery.
• With the rise in the number of satellites in orbit around the earth, space debris has become a pressing issue.

For launching its Aditya-L1 mission on September 2, the Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) will be using a variant of the Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle (PSLV) which also launched India’s first missions to the moon and Mars.

With the PSLV-C57/Aditya-L1 mission, India’s first solar mission, the PSLV-XL variant will mark its 25th flight.

Read more here

Preparations in the final phase for the launch of PSLV-C57/Aditya-L1 Mission.
| Photo Credit: PTI

The countdown for the launch of India’s first solar observatory mission, Aditya-L1 has commenced at the Satish Dhawan Space Centre in Sriharikota.

“The countdown leading to the launch at 11:50 Hrs. IST on September 2, 2023 has commended,” ISRO posted on X (formerly Twitter).

The Aditya-L1 spacecraft is scheduled to be launched by the Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle (PSLV) on September 2, 2023, at 11:50 a.m. from Sriharikota.

This is the 59th flight of the PSLV and the 25th mission using the PSLV-XL configuration.

The PSLV will launch Aditya-L1 spacecraft in a highly eccentric Earth bound orbit.

According to ISRO the spacecraft shall be placed in a halo orbit around the Lagrange point 1 (L1) of the Sun-Earth system, which is about 1.5 million km from the Earth.

“A satellite placed in the halo orbit around the L1 point has the major advantage of continuously viewing the Sun without any occultation/eclipses. This will provide a greater advantage of observing the solar activities and its effect on space weather in real time. The spacecraft carries seven payloads to observe the photosphere, chromosphere and the outermost layers of the Sun (the corona) using electromagnetic and particle and magnetic field detectors. Using the special vantage point L1, four payloads directly view the Sun and the remaining three payloads carry out in-situ studies of particles and fields at the Lagrange point L1, thus providing important scientific studies of the propagatory effect of solar dynamics in the interplanetary medium,” states the Aditya L1 mission profile.

The suits of Aditya L1 payloads are expected to provide the most crucial information to understand the problem of coronal heating, coronal mass ejection, pre-flare and flare activities and their characteristics, dynamics of space weather, propagation of particles and fields etc.

The seven payloads onboard the satellite is Visible Emission Line Coronagraph(VELC), Solar Ultraviolet Imaging Telescope (SUIT), Solar Low Energy X-ray Spectrometer (SoLEXS), High Energy L1 Orbiting X-ray Spectrometer(HEL1OS), Aditya Solar wind Particle Experiment(ASPEX), Plasma Analyser Package For Aditya (PAPA) and Advanced Tri-axial High Resolution Digital Magnetometers.

The launch of Aditya-L1 comes days after the space agency created history making India only the fourth country to successfully land on the moon and first to land near the lunar south pole.

Aditya L1 onboard the PSLV-C57 the Satish Dhawan Space Centre in Sriharikota on September 1, 2023 on the eve of its launch. Photo: X/@ISRO via PTI

India’s first solar observatory mission, named Aditya-L1, will be launched onboard the Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle (PSLV) from the Satish Dhawan Space Centre in Sriharikota at 11.50 am on Saturday.

On Friday, the Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) commenced the 23-hour 40-minute countdown for the launch of the Aditya-L1 mission.

Approximately sixty-three minutes after liftoff, the satellite separation is expected to take place as the PSLV will launch the Aditya-L1 spacecraft into a highly eccentric earth-bound orbit at around 12.53 pm.

This PSLV-C57/Aditya-L1 mission can be counted as one of the longest missions involving ISRO’s workhorse launch vehicle. However, the longest of the PSLV missions is still the 2016 PSLV-C35 mission which was completed two hours, 15 minutes and 33 seconds after lift-off.

Long journey

Following the launch, Aditya-L1 will stay in earth-bound orbits for 16 days, during which it will undergo five manoeuvres to gain the necessary velocity for its journey.

“Subsequently, Aditya-L1 undergoes a Trans-Lagrangian1 insertion manoeuvre, marking the beginning of its 110-day trajectory to the destination around the L1 Lagrange point. Upon arrival at the L1 point, another manoeuvre binds Aditya-L1 to an orbit around L1, a balanced gravitational location between the Earth and the Sun,” ISRO said.

Aditya-L1 will stay approximately 1.5 million km away from the earth, directed towards the sun; this is about 1% of the distance between the earth and the sun.

Studying the solar corona

The Aditya L-1 payloads are expected to provide crucial information to understand the problem of coronal heating, coronal mass ejection, pre-flare and flare activities and their characteristics, dynamics of space weather, propagation of particles and fields etc.

The seven payloads onboard the satellite are: Visible Emission Line Coronagraph (VELC), Solar Ultraviolet Imaging Telescope (SUIT), Solar Low Energy X-ray Spectrometer (SoLEXS), High Energy L1 Orbiting x-ray Spectrometer (HEL1OS), Aditya Solar wind Particle Experiment (ASPEX), Plasma Analyser Package for Aditya (PAPA), and Advanced Tri-axial High Resolution Digital Magnetometers.

The primary payload is VELC, which was developed by the Indian Institute of Astrophysics (IIA), Bengaluru and is designed to study the solar corona and the dynamics of coronal mass ejections.

The Aditya-L1 satellite placed in the halo orbit around the L1 point has a major advantage of continuously viewing the sun without any occultation or eclipse. It is expected to provide a greater advantage in observing the solar activities continuously.

Tracking solar quakes

“There are certain activities which take place around the sun which we call solar quakes. In the aftermath of these solar quakes, a lot of energetic material from the sun is thrown out. Some of them can be directed towards the earth and they can travel at a maximum speed of 3,000 km per hour and reach the near-earth space within 15 hours,” Ramesh R., the principal investigator of the VELC payload, told The Hindu.

Prof. Ramesh added that once the energetic material reaches the earth, it may not cause any physical damage, but it does have the capability to cripple life on earth.

“Our present-day life scenario depends very much on the stationary satellites which are parked in space be it for our internet connectivity, cell phone or TV connectivity. These charged particle clouds can engulf the satellites and damage all the electronics on board the satellites. Hence, we do not know when the solar quakes will happen, it can happen any time of the day so it is very essential to observe the sun on a 24-hour basis and carry out observations,” Prof. Ramesh added.

A memorable black-and-white photograph from the early days of the Indian space programme shows the nose cone of a small rocket being taken to the launchpad on the carrier rack of a bicycle. It’s an incongruous sight. All around the bicycle is the dusty, palm-bedecked rural India of the 1960s. Cut to 2023, and the image of a jubilant S. Somanath, Chairman, Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO), declaring, “We have achieved soft-landing on the moon. India is on the moon.”

In the slow yet eventful decades separating the two images, the space programme evolved from what many perceived as the frivolous aspirations of an upstart, poverty-stricken third-world country to a sparkling example of scientific excellence that Indians can look up to. Truth is, the ISRO had made it to the elite space club much before the Chandrayaan-3 mission’s ‘Vikram’ lander touched down on the lunar south pole on August 23. The space agency has proved its capabilities time and again by placing satellites in precise orbits on modest budgets and embarking upon highly publicised missions to the moon (in 2008 and 2019) and Mars (in 2014).

In 2017, the ISRO turned up the heat on the space race by launching 104 satellites in one go on the 39th flight of its trusted Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle (PSLV). But beyond such immediately visible, high-profile achievements are the countless ways in which the ISRO and its home-grown technologies have touched the lives of the common people; be it weather forecasts, telemedicine, navigation or tele-education. It is this connect with the grassroots that has made ISRO a household name.

Second to none

Vikram Sarabhai, the driving spirit behind India’s space ambitions, was keen for India to be “second to none in the application of advanced technologies to the real problems of man and society which we find in our country.” To him, the application of sophisticated technologies and methods of analysis “to our problems is not to be confused with embarking on grandiose schemes whose primary impact is for show rather than for progress measured in hard economic and social terms.” This is perhaps why it did not surprise anyone when the Vikram Sarabhai Space Centre (VSSC), ISRO’s lead facility responsible for launch vehicles, including the hefty LVM3 which put Chandrayaan-3 in orbit last July, turned its skills to developing mechanical ventilators in the bleak days of the COVID-19 pandemic. But then, the beginnings of ISRO too were modest; on land relinquished by the fishing community and a local church in a little-known coastal village in Kerala’s Thiruvananthapuram.

“A historic landmark in the entire process of land acquisition was the singular act of grace on the part of the Christian community at Thumba and the bishop of Thiruvananthapuram Rt Rev. Dr. Peter Bernard Pereira, in 1962. The venerated place of worship (the St. Mary Magdalene Church, now a popular space museum) was graciously laid at the altar of science,’’ the book A Brief History of Rocketry in ISRO, by P. V. Manoranjan Rao and P. Radhakrishnan, veterans of the space agency, notes. On November 21 this year, it will be 60 years since the first sounding rocket, an American-made Nike-Apache, lifted off from Thumba. Five years after that event, Prime Minister Indira Gandhi, in 1968, dedicated the Thumba Equatorial Rocket Launching Station (TERLS) to the UN.

Over the years, the space agency has had its ups and downs. The occasional mission setbacks aside, the ISRO was rocked by the spy scandal in the early 1990s and the Antrix-Devas case later on. Nevertheless, the agency has always displayed an ability to bounce back stronger. Today, the ISRO, with its many facilities spread over the country, has a pride of place among India’s government establishments. In the midst of institutions bogged down by laidback attitudes to work and bureaucratic lethargy, it is seen as one of the rare ones that can ‘’deliver.’’

By indigenously developing technologies like the cryogenic rocket engine and the Indian Regional Navigation Satellite System (IRNSS – NavIC), often in the face of sanctions, it has demonstrated to the country’s larger scientific community that such things are not the exclusive, impregnable domains of the West alone.

Perhaps, this is ISRO’s greatest contribution to the country’s scientific community; a ‘work culture’, epitomised by an unwavering commitment to excellence and teamwork that can be traced back to the days of Sarabhai, Satish Dhawan and A.P.J. Abdul Kalam.

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