Representative image
| Photo Credit: The Hindu

The story so far: The Indian Council of Medical Research (ICMR) will initiate wastewater surveillance for 10 viruses across 50 cities over the next six months. Currently, five cities are being monitored. The move is aimed at identifying any increase in virus growth trend at the earliest, said ICMR head Rajiv Bahl.

What is the plan?

“The next six months will see the scaling up of surveillance across India which will enable us to pick up any rise in virus load in the community. Currently, the COVID-19 virus and polio virus are under surveillance,’’ explained Dr. Bahl. He added that wastewater surveillance will now be used to monitor more commonly reported symptoms caused by several pathogens, such as fever, diarrhoea, acute encephalitis syndrome (inflammation of the brain), and respiratory distress. The ICMR is involved in establishing environmental surveillance for viruses, including the Avian Influenza Virus (AIV) by monitoring surface water and wastewater, particularly in areas with outbreaks, to establish an early warning system.

India also has a robust surveillance system for Influenza-Like Illness (ILI) and Severe Acute Respiratory Illness (SARI) through ICMR and the Integrated Disease Surveillance Programme (IDSP). Wastewater and Environmental Surveillance (WES) use samples from sewage, or other environmental waters impacted by human wastewater.

Why is wastewater surveillance vital?

The ICMR has noted that like all countries across the globe, India too is experiencing a significant increase in the emergence and re-emergence of pathogens, including viral, bacterial, and zoonotic diseases. Factors contributing to this pathogen load include population growth, rapid urbanisation, environmental changes, and increased human-animal interaction.

Recently, following the COVID-19 pandemic, Wastewater-Based Epidemiology (WBE) has emerged as an effective tool for the early detection of disease outbreaks. According to experts, WBE can be used as a predictive instrument, capable of providing near-real-time, community-level pathogen surveillance and anticipating and mitigating future pandemics even before the first clinical symptoms are detected. “This approach enables cost-effective, non-invasive, and population-wide monitoring of infectious diseases’ emergence, evolution, and decline. By identifying pathogens in human waste (e.g., viruses and bacteria), WBE delivers real-time insights into infection trends, encompassing data from asymptomatic and pre-symptomatic populations, enabling timely interventions from public health authorities,” according to an article titled ‘Integrated environmental surveillance: the role of wastewater, air, and surface microbiomes in global health security’.

It added that among the key advantages are its capacity to encompass large populations, pinpoint transmission hotspots, and facilitate resource allocation for containment efforts.

How is it done?

According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, U.S., people with certain infections (such as COVID-19), can shed pieces of the virus or bacteria when they use the bathroom, shower, wash hands, or launder clothing, even if they don’t have symptoms. These pieces of virus or bacteria travel from the toilet, sink, shower, or other drain through the sewage system.

So, before wastewater is treated, wastewater operators take samples to send to the laboratory. Laboratories test the wastewater sample to detect and report on the different types of infections that are circulating in a community. This information is available in as little as five to seven days after waste enters the sewer. Public health officials use wastewater data to better understand disease trends in communities and make decisions, such as providing guidance on how to prevent infections or increasing testing or vaccination options.

Where else can the information be used?

Wastewater surveillance is a useful method to collect information and tackle diseases as well as land-based sources of pollution. In addition, it also provides useful data to maintain ecosystem services and protect freshwater and marine ecosystems. “This trend is encouraging for the future of health systems and sound environmental management but there is a need for expanding this positive trend further and enhancing the good practices and significant efforts to monitor and assess water quality,” according to the United Nations Environment Programme. The World Health Organization is also working on capacity development for wastewater and environmental surveillance.

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Bangladesh Prime Minister Sheikh Hasina. File
| Photo Credit: AFP

The chief prosecutor of Bangladesh’s International Crimes Tribunal (ICT) has announced plans to seek the extradition of ousted leader Sheikh Hasina from neighbouring India. “As the main perpetrator has fled the country, we will start the legal procedure to bring her back,” Mohammad Tajul Islam told reporters on September 8, 2024. The tribunal was established in 2010 by the former Bangladesh Prime Minister to investigate crimes committed during the 1971 independence war from Pakistan.

Ms. Hasina sought refuge in India in early August after a mass uprising compelled her to step down. Since her departure, numerous criminal cases have been lodged against her and her aides, encompassing charges of murder, torture, abduction, crimes against humanity, and genocide. The new interim government in Dhaka has already revoked Ms. Hasina’s diplomatic passport. Additionally, India and Bangladesh have a bilateral extradition treaty in place that could allow for her return to face trial.

What does the extradition treaty say?

Under the International Crimes (Tribunals) Act of 1973, Bangladeshi courts can proceed with criminal trials even in Ms. Hasina’s absence. However, this is bound to raise raises concerns about the fairness of the proceedings, and adherence to due process, while also complicating the enforcement of judicial orders. Therefore, the extradition of the former Prime Minister is considered crucial.

In 2013, India and Bangladesh executed an extradition treaty as a strategic measure to address insurgency and terrorism along their shared borders. It was subsequently amended in 2016 to ease the process of exchange of fugitives wanted by both nations. The treaty has facilitated the transfer of several notable political prisoners. For instance, in 2020, two convicts involved in the 1975 assassination of Ms. Hasina’s father, Sheikh Mujibur Rahman, were extradited to Bangladesh for execution. Similarly, India successfully secured the extradition of Anup Chetia, the general secretary of the banned United Liberation Front of Assam (ULFA), who had spent 18 years imprisoned in Dhaka.

The treaty mandates the extradition of individuals charged with or convicted of crimes that warrant a minimum sentence of one year’s imprisonment. A key requirement for extradition is the principle of dual criminality, meaning that the offence must be punishable in both countries. Since the charges against Ms. Hasina are prosecutable in India, and the penalties for her alleged crimes are also substantial, she qualifies for extradition on these grounds. Additionally, the treaty encompasses within its ambit attempts to commit, as well as aiding, abetting, inciting, or acting as an accomplice in such crimes.

Notably, the 2016 amendment to the treaty substantially lowered the threshold for extradition by removing the requirement to furnish concrete evidence against the offender. Under Article 10 of the treaty, only an arrest warrant issued by a competent court in the requesting country is now sufficient to initiate the extradition process.

Can extradition be refused?

Article 6 of the treaty stipulates that extradition may be refused if the offence is of a “political nature”. However, there are stringent limitations on this particular exemption. A host of offences such as murder, terrorism-related crimes, and kidnapping, are explicitly excluded from being classified as political. Given that several of the charges against Ms. Hasina — such as murder, enforced disappearance, and torture — fall outside the scope of this exemption, it is unlikely that India will be able to justify these accusations as political transgressions to deny extradition.

Another basis for refusal is outlined in Article 8, which permits denial of a request if the accusation is not “made in good faith in the interests of justice” or if it involves military offences not considered “an offence under general criminal law.” India could potentially refuse extradition on the ground that the charges against Ms. Hasina have not been levelled in good faith and there is a possibility of her being subjected to political persecution or an unfair trial upon her return to Bangladesh. Such concerns are further exacerbated by recent reports that Ministers from Ms. Hasina’s Cabinet, who have been arrested over recent weeks were physically arrested by bystanders while being transported to court for remand hearings.

Students chant slogans near a vandalised mural of Bangladesh’s ousted Prime Minister Sheikh Hasina near Dhaka University in the capital on August 12, 2024.
| Photo Credit:
AFP

What are the potential implications?

Dr. Sreeradha Datta, professor of international relations at O.P. Jindal Global University told The Hindu that the treaty does not guarantee Ms. Hassina’s extradition, as the final decision will hinge more on diplomatic negotiations and political considerations. “Even if India were to decline the extradition request, it would likely serve as a minor political irritant rather and is unlikely to dent bilateral relations, especially in critical areas of cooperation between the two nations,” she said.

Bangladesh is India’s largest trade partner in South Asia, with bilateral trade estimated at $15.9 billion in the fiscal year 2022-23. Before Ms. Hasina’s ouster, both nations were poised to commence dialogue on a comprehensive economic partnership agreement (CEPA) to foster economic ties. Following the regime change in Dhaka, Indian Prime Minister Narendra Modi has spoken with the Chief Adviser of the new interim government, Muhammad Yunus, and pledged continued support for ongoing development projects.