Perched atop a steep cliff in the Dangrek mountain range, Preah Vihear straddles the natural frontier between Cambodia and Thailand. The forested hills stretch from the Mekong River, Southeast Asia’s longest, flowing from the Tibetan Plateau to the South China Sea, to the highlands of San Kamphaeng, Thailand. 

Built between the 9th and 12th centuries by Khmer kings like Yasovarman I and Suryavarman I and II, the temple honours Shiva as a sacred mountain abode. Originally known as Sri Sikharisvara, meaning ‘Glorious Lord of the Mountain’, the temple is located in Cambodia’s Preah Vihear province, about 140 km northeast of Angkor Wat, the 12 century monument also built under Suryavarman I and II. Rising more than 700 metres above the plains, it commands sweeping views of the surrounding landscape. While access today is primarily from Cambodia, the temple’s position has long made it a point of contention. It lies at the heart of the Thai-Cambodia tensions, which flared again last week with cross-border air strikes and artillery shelling, before U.S. President Donald Trump announced a ceasefire on December 12.

Unlike the conventional east-facing rectangular plan of most Khmer temples, Preah Vihear follows a linear north–south axis. According to UNESCO, the complex comprises a series of sanctuaries connected by pavements and staircases stretching over 800 metres. Five ornate gopuras (gateways), carved with Hindu mythology and Khmer symbols, are built on the rugged cliff face. Though partly in ruins, the temple’s elevated settings offer panoramic vistas, while its stone galleries and sanctuaries blend Hindu and Buddhist elements.

UNESCO recognises Preah Vihear as an outstanding masterpiece of Khmer architecture. For Cambodia, the temple is both a sacred pilgrimage site and a powerful symbol of national identity and sovereignty.

The dispute between Thailand and Cambodia has its roots in colonial-era borders. The Franco-Siamese treaties of 1904 and 1907 defined the frontier along the watershed line of the Dangrek Mountains. 

When French surveyors created maps, they placed Preah Vihear on the Cambodian side despite the temple sitting atop a cliff more easily accessible from Thailand. After Cambodia got independence from France in 1953, its rulers renewed claims over Preah Vihear, but Thailand had deployed troops in the region.

ICJ ruling 

Cambodia took the dispute to the Hague-based International Court of Justice (ICJ), which in 1962 ruled that the temple lay in territory under Cambodian sovereignty. The Court noted that the Franco-Siamese Treaty of 1904 provided that the frontier was to follow the watershed line, and that a map based on the work of a Mixed Delimitation Commission showed the Temple on the Cambodian side of the boundary. Thailand claimed that the map had no binding legal status and had never been formally accepted by Bangkok. The ICJ rejected this contention and upheld Cambodia’s claim. It ordered Thailand “to withdraw any military or police force stationed there and to restore to Cambodia any objects removed from the ruins since 1954.” While the temple was awarded to Cambodia, the sovereignty around the surrounding land remained undefined, leaving room for divergent interpretations and fuelling periodic flare-ups. UNESCO’s decision to list the temple as a World Heritage Site in 2008 underscored its historical significance, but also sharpened sensitivities, leading to cross-border fighting.

In April 2011, Cambodia asked the ICJ to interpret the 1962 Judgment, arguing that while Thailand recognised Cambodia’s sovereignty over the temple itself, it did not recognise the sovereignty of Cambodia over the surrounding area. In its ruling on November 11, 2013, the Court declared unanimously that the 1962 Judgment decided that Cambodia possessed “sovereignty over the whole territory of the promontory of Preah Vihear”, and ordered Thailand to withdraw its forces from that territory. The court also affirmed that the temple was a site of religious and cultural significance for “the peoples of the region”, and asked both Thailand and Cambodia to cooperate for its protection.

Despite the ruling, tensions continued to simmer, punctuated by periodic skirmishes along the undemarcated border. These flared into open conflict in July 2025, when cross-border fighting killed dozens and displaced more than 300,000 people. The five-day clashes were halted through diplomatic intervention by Malaysia and the U.S. But in November, Thailand announced it would suspend implementation of the ceasefire after a landmine blast injured several soldiers. The decision led to renewed fighting on December 7, with Cambodia accusing Thailand of launching air strikes. 

On December 12, U.S. President Donald Trump claimed that he had talked to the leaders of both countries and secured another ceasefire. Yet, tensions continued to linger in the forested, hilly, and sparsely populated borderlands, an area dotted with ancient monuments and sacred cultural carvings. 

At least one person was killed in Cambodia amid a flare-up of conflict with Thailand on Wednesday (November 12, 2025) as the neighbours accused each other of opening fire along a disputed part of their border, threatening a U.S.-brokered truce.

Earlier on Wednesday (November 12, 2025) Thailand’s Foreign Ministry said it had demanded an apology from Cambodia after accusing it of laying fresh landmines that maimed a Thai soldier on Monday (November 10, 2025).

On Tuesday (November 11, 2025), Thailand said it was suspending an enhanced ceasefire agreement that the two nations signed last month in the presence of President Donald Trump.

Cambodia denies the charge that it has laid new mines and has urged Thailand to adhere to the October deal, which built on an initial ceasefire negotiated by Mr. Trump to end five days of fighting in July.

Firing near disputed border village

Cambodia’s Defence Ministry said Thai troops opened fire near a disputed border village at around 3:50 p.m. local time (0850 GMT) on Wednesday (November 12, 2025).

One person was killed and three wounded, the Ministry said in a statement.

Thai Army spokesman Major General Winthai Suvaree said Cambodian soldiers initially fired shots into Thailand.

“Thai forces took cover and fired warning shots in response, following rules of engagement,” he said, adding that there were no casualties on the Thai side. “The incident lasted about 10 minutes before calm was restored.”

The disputed frontier settlement, which Thailand says is part of its Ban Nong Ya Kaew village in Sa Kaeo province, but which Cambodia says is part of Prey Chan village in Banteay Meanchey province, has been the site of previous confrontations.

Thai Foreign Ministry spokesperson Nikorndej Balankura told reporters on Wednesday (November 12, 2025) that Thailand was calling for an apology from Cambodia for Monday’s (November 10, 2025) landmine incident.

“We asked them to find the facts on what happened and who is accountable, and with it, asked them to put in place measures to prevent the future recurrence of the situation.”

A Cambodian government spokesman declined to comment on Thailand’s demands.

At least 48 people were killed and an estimated 3,00,000 temporarily displaced during the July clashes, which saw the exchange of rocket fire, heavy artillery and airstrikes.

Landmine blasts along disputed frontier areas were among the catalysts behind the border clashes, with at least seven Thai soldiers severely injured in as many mine-related incidents since July 16.

Some of these mines were likely newly laid, Reuters reported in October, based on expert analysis of material shared by Thailand’s military.

The Southeast Asian neighbours have contested sovereignty for more than a century over undemarcated points along their 817-km (508-mile) land border, first mapped in 1907 by France when it ruled Cambodia as a colony.