The Rohingya undertake perilous sea journeys every year in search of better living conditions, travelling aboard rickety boats often operated by trafficking networks. Image used for representational purposes only.
| Photo Credit: AP

A view of the courtroom as the International Court of Justice (ICJ) starts two weeks of hearings in a landmark case brought by Gambia, which accuses Myanmar of committing genocide against the Rohingya, a minority Muslim group, in The Hague, Netherlands, on January 12, 2026.
| Photo Credit: Reuters

Rohingya refugees hold a banner while taking part in a protest rally inside a refugee camp to mark the eight-year anniversary of their exodus, in Cox’s Bazar, Bangladesh, August 25, 2025.
| Photo Credit: Reuters

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File photo of Myanmar’s Rakhine state showing Rohingya refugees gathering behind a barbed-wire fence in a temporary settlement setup.
| Photo Credit: AFP

Intense fighting in Myanmar’s Rakhine State poses a grave threat to civilians, the United Nations warned on April 19, as it urged international pressure to prevent more “horrendous persecution” of ethnic Rohingya.

U.N. human rights chief Volker Turk said clashes between the military and the Arakan Army, alongside tensions being fuelled between the Rohingya and ethnic Rakhine communities, meant there was a serious risk of a repeat of previous atrocities.

Also read: The Myanmar conflict is a regional problem

“The alarm bells are ringing, and we must not allow there to be a repeat of the past,” Turk said in a statement.

More than one million Rohingya fled Myanmar’s Rakhine state to refugee camps in Bangladesh in 2017 after a military clampdown on the Muslim group in which many were killed.

Thousands still risk their lives each year trying to get away from Myanmar on flimsy boats trying to get to Malaysia or Indonesia.

“Countries with influence on the Myanmar military and armed groups involved must act now to protect all civilians in Rakhine state and prevent another episode of horrendous persecution of the Rohingya,” Turk said.

Clashes have rocked Rakhine state again since the Arakan Army attacked security forces in November, ending a ceasefire that had largely held since the military’s 2021 coup.

The AA is one of several armed ethnic minority groups in Myanmar’s border regions.

Turk’s office said that since the informal ceasefire broke down, 15 of Rakhine’s 17 townships had been affected by fighting, resulting in hundreds of deaths and injuries, and taking the number of displaced to well over 300,000.

“Rakhine state has once again become a battleground involving multiple actors, and civilians are paying a heavy price, with Rohingya at particular risk,” said Turk, the UN high commissioner for human rights.

“What is particularly disturbing is that whereas in 2017, the Rohingya were targeted by one group, they are now trapped between two armed factions who have a track record of killing them. We must not allow the Rohingya to be targeted again.”

Myanmar’s ruling junta came to power in the February 2021 coup that ousted Aung San Suu Kyi’s elected government, ending a 10-year experiment with democracy and plunging the Southeast Asian nation into bloody turmoil.

The junta is struggling to crush resistance to its rule by long-established ethnic rebel groups and newer pro-democracy forces.

The story so far: The dramatic rescue of dozens of Rohingya refugees from the Indian Ocean last week after a wooden boat with nearly 150 on board capsized off the Indonesian coast has once again drawn attention to the plight of the refugees who are increasingly embarking on dangerous sea journeys to seek a better life.

On March 21, an Indonesian search and rescue team saved 69 people at sea, about 20 km off the western coast of Aceh province, hours after their foundering boat capsized following a long journey from Bangladesh, alongside another vessel that had come to their aid. Visuals showed exhausted men, women and children soaked from overnight rain struggling for space on the overturned boat’s rusty hull as rescuers pulled them to safety.

With around 75 Rohingya rescued and the remaining feared drowned, the incident is a reflection of the growing desperation that is driving the refugees to flee Myanmar and overcrowded relief camps in Bangladesh for safer Southeast Asian countries. As per the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR), over 4,500 Rohingya refugees set off on dangerous journeys across the Bay of Bengal and the Andaman Sea last year. Of these, 569 people lost their lives or went missing, marking the highest death toll since 2014.

Who are the Rohingya refugees?

The Rohingya are a Muslim minority ethnic group with their roots in the Arakan kingdom in Myanmar, formerly known as Burma. Describing the etymological origins of the term Rohingya, the Council on Foreign Relations notes thatRohang derives from the word ‘Arakan’ in the Rohingya dialect and ga or gya means from.

The Rohingya claim to have lived in Myanmar’s Rakhine State for generations, but successive governments in the country have disputed their ties, labelling them illegal immigrants from Bangladesh. The Rohingya are culturally and religiously distinct from the majority Buddhist population in Myanmar, and speak a Bengali dialect which is different from the common Burmese language. Myanmar has refused to recognise them as an ethnic group, denying them citizenship since 1982, thus making them the world’s largest stateless population, devoid of fundamental rights and security.

According to Myanmar’s 1982 citizenship law, members of the Rohingya community, along with other ethnic minorities, can only attain citizenship if they prove their ancestors resided in Myanmar before 1823. Otherwise, even if one of their parents is a Myanmar citizen, they are deemed to be “resident foreigners” or “associate citizens.”

Why have Rohingyas fled their homeland?

After decades of discrimination, violence and persecution at the hands of security forces, the Rohingya began fleeing Myanmar in significant numbers first in 2012, following a military crackdown triggered by the rape and murder of a Rakhine woman in a Rohingya-dominated area which flared tensions between the Rohingya and Rakhine’s Buddhist community. Since then, escalating tensions in the region have often erupted into violence, leading hundreds of thousands to abandon their home and seek refuge in the neighbouring countries of Bangladesh, Thailand, Indonesia, Malaysia and India. 

Their largest exodus began in August 2017 when a massive wave of violence broke out in Rakhine, driving more than 7.5 lakh people to seek sanctuary in Bangladesh to escape the brutality of security forces. Entire villages were razed, families were torn apart or killed, and severe human rights violations like mass rape were reported. The United Nations described the 2017 violence as “ethnic cleansing” and the humanitarian situation as “catastrophic.”

A 2018 UN fact-finding commission claimed the Myanmar government had “genocidal” intent against the Rohingya. Its head said the commission had found clear patterns of abuse by the military, including systematic targeting of civilians, committing sexual violence, promoting discriminatory rhetoric against minorities, and creating a climate of impunity for security forces.

Also Read | What is India’s policy on the Rohingya? 

Why sea journeys?

While over one million Rohingya have fled Myanmar since the 1990s, around six lakh remain in the country, mostly in camps for internally displaced people where their movements and livelihoods are restricted. An estimated 9,60,000 Rohingya, meanwhile, reside in refugee camps in Bangladesh. Most live near the Myanmar border in Cox’s Bazar, which has grown over the years to house some of the world’s largest and most densely populated refugee camps. These overcrowded camps lack basic human necessities, forcing Rohingya to live in harsh conditions. There is a shortage of food, access to water is inadequate, sanitation facilities are missing, healthcare is insufficient, and children reportedly grow up without formal education.

The camps are highly susceptible to weather-related disasters like storms, rains, flooding and highly exposed to fires and outbreaks of diseases due to insanitary conditions. Security conditions also have deteriorated over the years due to gang violence and an increase in arson attacks in camps. Over 60 Rohingya were killed in Bangladeshi camp clashes in 2023.

With the option of returning to Myanmar virtually impossible, and worsening conditions in relief camps in Bangladesh, an increasing number of Rohingya have been undertaking dangerous and often deadly journeys across the Bay of Bengal and the Andaman Sea to the Muslim-majority nations of Indonesia and Malaysia. However, human traffickers exploit their desperation, charging exorbitant amounts to ferry them on rickety boats from Bangladesh to Indonesia. The treacherous voyages with inadequate space few basic supplies take weeks, sometimes even months. Horrifying accounts of abuse during the journey, including violence against women, have been recorded.

Some Rohingya remain stranded at sea for weeks because countries are reluctant to accept refugees, citing stress on their land and resources. Others are detained along the route on illegal immigration charges, enduring lengthy incarceration without the due process of law. 

Many do not survive the journey.

What about the rising death toll?

The UN estimates that one in eight Rohingya who take the sea route dies or disappears in the attempt, making the Andaman Sea and Bay of Bengal among the deadliest stretches of water in the world. Last year, the number of people embarking on sea journeys increased by 21%. Around 70% of the total refugees included women and children.

The UNHCR reported a 63% increase in deaths or disappearances last year compared to 2022. At least 569 Rohingya died or went missing on their sea journey, including 200 in a single incident in November. In contrast, there was a 170% drop in land movements. The UNHCR reported seven tragic accidents at sea, resulting in 250 confirmed deaths and 319 persons missing in 2023, along with widespread reports of physical abuse and gender-based violence among survivors.

The report also highlighted the significant spike in the number of Rohingya arriving in Indonesia via sea in recent years. This number increased by 1,261% between 2021 and 2023. While 64% of the refugee boats docked in Indonesia last year, compared to 22% in 2022, only one boat carrying 83 individuals reached Malaysia, according to UNHCR data. Indonesia is not a signatory to the 1951 Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees, but has international obligations to comply with the principle of non-refoulement.

“Alarmed” by the statistics, the UN refugee agency has called on regional coastal authorities to take timely action to prevent tragedies, saying, “Saving lives and rescuing those in distress at sea is a humanitarian imperative and a longstanding duty under international maritime law.” However, Rohingya deaths at sea persist till date.

New Delhi:

India, being a developing nation with the highest population globally, should prioritise its own citizens, the Centre told the Supreme Court today while underscoring concerns regarding national security due to the illegal entry and stay of Rohingya refugees. This declaration came in response to a court petition urging the release of Rohingya refugees detained for alleged violations of the Foreigners Act. 

The Rohingya crisis is a humanitarian catastrophe that has drawn international attention due to its magnitude and complexity. Originating from Myanmar, the Rohingya people have faced decades of persecution and violence, leading to a mass exodus from their homeland.

The Rohingya, primarily Muslims, have fled ethnic conflict in predominantly Buddhist Myanmar, seeking refuge in India, Bangladesh, and neighbouring countries.

Who Are The Rohingya?

The Rohingya are a Muslim ethnic minority group residing in predominantly Buddhist Myanmar. According to the United Nations, despite living in the country for generations, they have been systematically denied citizenship since 1982, rendering them stateless and without basic rights. The term “Rohingya” emerged in the 1950s as a means for the community to assert its collective identity and historical ties to the region.

Roots Of The Crisis

Decades of discrimination and marginalisation against the Rohingya by the Myanmar government have laid the groundwork for the crisis, the UN’s Human Rights Council said in a report. Restrictive citizenship laws, imposed limitations on marriage, family planning, education, and freedom of movement have compounded the community’s suffering.

Rakhine State, where most Rohingya reside, is Myanmar’s least developed region, and a constant flashpoint in tensions between the Rohingya and other ethnic groups. The state’s capital Sittwe is located nearly 650 kilometres from Myanmar’s capital Napyidaw. 

Escalation Of Violence

The crisis escalated dramatically in August 2017 when the Arakan Rohingya Salvation Army (ARSA), a Rohingya insurgent group, launched attacks on Myanmar police and army posts in Rakhine State. In response, Myanmar’s military launched a brutal crackdown, characterised by widespread violence, mass killings, and the torching of Rohingya villages. Hundreds of thousands fled across the border into neighbouring Bangladesh to escape the atrocities.

The international community has condemned Myanmar’s actions, with many labelling it as ethnic cleansing and even genocide. The United Nations, human rights organisations, and individual countries have called for accountability and justice for the Rohingya. Legal actions have been pursued at international courts, including cases at the International Court of Justice (ICJ) and the International Criminal Court (ICC). Sanctions have been imposed on Myanmar’s military leaders by various nations and organisations.

Refugee Crisis

The majority of Rohingya refugees have sought shelter in overcrowded camps in Cox’s Bazaar in Bangladesh. The living conditions in these camps are dire, often made worse by the annual monsoon season, which brings flooding and landslides. Disease outbreaks and lack of access to basic necessities pose significant challenges to the well-being of Rohingya refugees.

The Kutupalong camp In Cox’s Bazaar is widely regarded as the world’s largest refugee camp, even bigger than the Um Rakuba camp in Sudan and the Za’atari camp in Jordan.

Regional Dynamics And India’s Stance

The Rohingya crisis has regional implications, with refugees seeking asylum in neighbouring countries such as India, Malaysia and Thailand. 

According to a 2019 report by the US think tank Council On Foreign Relations, approximately 18,000 Rohingya refugees have officially registered with the UN refugee agency, but Indian authorities estimate that the total Rohingya population in the country stands at around 40,000. The Indian government has been actively pursuing their repatriation. Since late 2018, India has reportedly deported numerous refugees back to Myanmar.

Now, the Rohingya have also been cited in debates regarding the Centre’s handling of the Citizenship Amendment Act (CAA). The CAA aims to grant citizenship to migrants from Bangladesh, Pakistan, and Afghanistan, excluding Muslims, who fled religious persecution and entered India before 2015. Responding to criticism from the Opposition regarding national security concerns related to the CAA, Union Home Minister Amit Shah has countered by questioning why there is no opposition to the entry of Rohingya refugees.

The Centre has said that India has not ratified the 1951 Refugee Convention or its 1967 Protocol. Therefore, determining whether any group should be recognised as refugees is solely a matter of policy.

Rohingya refugees stand on a capsized boat before being rescued, in the waters of West Aceh, Indonesia, March 21, 2024.
| Photo Credit: Reuters

An Indonesian search-and-rescue ship located a capsized wooden boat that had been carrying dozens of Rohingya Muslim refugees and began pulling survivors who had been standing on its hull to safety on March 21.

An AP photographer aboard the rescue ship said 10 people had been taken aboard local fishing boats and another 59 were being saved by the Indonesian craft.

Men, women and children, weak and soaked from the night’s rain, wept as the rescue operation got under way and people were taken aboard a rubber dinghy to the rescue boat.