Military experts and strategic think tanks believe that achieving victory in war ultimately requires a physical ground presence. While drones, missiles, air power and cyber warfare can inflict heavy damage on military assets and infrastructure, they cannot occupy territory, enforce surrender or establish political control. History consistently shows that long-term military and political success requires ground forces.

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Missiles and drones can destroy targets, but they cannot capture and hold territory. Ground forces, supported by armoured vehicles, remain indispensable for achieving decisive military objectives.

The role of tanks in modern warfare has become a subject of intense debate. Critics argue that the proliferation of drones and precision-guided weapons has reduced their battlefield relevance, while supporters maintain that tanks remain indispensable as mobile armoured platforms capable of delivering overwhelming firepower, breaching enemy defences and supporting infantry.

Over the decades, tanks have evolved into highly mobile, heavily armed main battle platforms equipped with advanced protection systems, improved sensors and networked battlefield capabilities.

A senior Indian Army officer said drones can create panic and inflict damage, but they cannot achieve the ultimate objective of war.

“To enforce surrender, a ground invasion of enemy territory is essential. That is what India demonstrated during the 1965 and 1971 wars against Pakistan. Tanks remain critical for such operations,” the officer said.

He added that tanks are also evolving to meet emerging threats through lighter designs, anti-drone protection, electronic warfare jammers and hard-kill active protection systems capable of intercepting incoming missiles and drones.

Lessons from the Russia-Ukraine war

The Russia-Ukraine war has highlighted both the strengths and vulnerabilities of tanks. Numerous battlefield videos have shown tanks being destroyed by inexpensive drones, exposing their susceptibility in an increasingly transparent battlefield dominated by aerial surveillance and precision strikes.

The widespread adoption of drones has transformed modern warfare. They now perform reconnaissance, anti-infantry and anti-tank roles at a fraction of the cost of traditional Anti-Tank Guided Missiles (ATGMs). Many of the early drones used in the conflict were assembled from commercially available components, making them highly cost-effective.

NITI Aayog member Rajiv Gauba comments on the significance of a strong defence industrial base 

Although tanks can no longer spearhead assaults without support, they remain highly effective when employed as part of an integrated combined-arms operation involving infantry, artillery, air defence, electronic warfare and drones. In such formations, tanks continue to provide unmatched mobile firepower, operational flexibility and battlefield shock effect.

Recent conflicts have demonstrated that low-cost drones can impose disproportionate costs on technologically superior militaries.

During the U.S.-Iran conflict, reports indicated that U.S. Terminal High Altitude Area Defense radar sites in West Asia were targeted by inexpensive Shahed-like drones.

India witnessed a similar trend during Operation Sindoor, when Pakistan reportedly employed swarms of low-radar cross-section drones to saturate Indian airspace, overwhelm air defence systems and exhaust expensive interceptor missiles. Cheap drones costing only a few lakh rupees can force defenders to launch interceptors worth several crores of rupees. Even when intercepted, these drones create an unfavourable economic equation for the defender. Modern warfare is increasingly becoming a battle of mathematics, where defenders can lose economically despite winning tactically.

The Zorawar light tank

Recognising the changing character of warfare, India is developing the indigenous Zorawar light tank specifically for operations along the Line of Actual Control (LAC).

In June this year, Prime Minister Narendra Modi visited Larsen & Toubro’s Hazira manufacturing facility in Gujarat, where he reviewed the Zorawar light tank and other indigenous defence systems.

Jointly developed by the Defence Research and Development Organisation (DRDO) and L&T Defence, the 25-tonne, air-transportable combat vehicle is designed for rapid deployment in high-altitude regions.

The Indian Army now expects to induct the Zorawar between 2028 and 2029. Now-retired Army Chief General Upendra Dwivedi recently stated that issues identified during development and testing are being addressed through routine design refinements. The Army plans to induct 354 Zorawar tanks under a programme estimated to cost around ₹17,500 crore.

One of the primary reasons for the revised induction timeline is the Army’s demand for enhanced protection against enemy fire.

Developers face the difficult challenge of improving armour protection while maintaining mobility and an optimal power-to-weight ratio. Achieving both objectives simultaneously is technically demanding and has extended the development cycle.

The Zorawar has been specifically designed for operations along the LAC, where China’s People’s Liberation Army has already deployed Type-15 light tanks. Indian military planners view the platform as critical to narrowing the operational gap and enabling rapid reinforcement of forward positions in mountainous terrain.

India has deployed Russian-origin T-72 and T-90 tanks in Ladakh, but these platforms were originally designed for plains and desert warfare.

The T-72 Ajeya remains the Army’s largest tank fleet, with approximately 2,400-2,500 tanks, many of which are over four decades old. The more capable T-90S Bhishma, numbering more than 1,200, forms the backbone of India’s armoured corps.

India has also inducted 124 Arjun Mk1 tanks, while 118 upgraded Mk1A variants are on order. However, the Arjun’s weight of nearly 67 tonnes has limited its operational utility because of constraints imposed by bridges, culverts and railway transporters.

Until recently, India possessed more than 4,000 medium and heavy tanks but not a single light tank. That absence became a major operational concern after the 2020 India-China border crisis.

Unique challenge

India faces a unique strategic challenge: preparing simultaneously for conventional warfare against Pakistan in the plains and armoured operations against China in the high Himalayas.

The western theatre is ideal for traditional armoured manoeuvre warfare. The northern theatre presents an entirely different environment, characterised by extreme altitude, narrow valleys, weak bridges and steep gradients.

At high altitudes, tank engines lose significant power because of thin air, fuel consumption increases, movement becomes difficult and recovering disabled vehicles is extremely challenging. Without a credible offensive armoured capability in the mountains, Indian planners feared continued vulnerability to incremental Chinese military pressure.

The capability gap had been recognised after the 1987 Sumdorong Chu crisis and again after the 2017 Doklam stand-off. However, the 2020 Ladakh confrontation accelerated the launch of Project Zorawar under an emergency procurement programme. Alongside the Zorawar programme, India is pursuing Project Ranjeet, also known as the Future Ready Combat Vehicle (FRCV). The programme aims to replace ageing T-72 tanks with approximately 1,700-1,800 next-generation main battle tanks over the next decade. Expected to weigh around 55 tonnes, the FRCV will feature a gun larger than 120 mm, advanced explosive reactive armour, underbelly mine protection, integrated anti-drone systems, AI-assisted fire control and network-centric connectivity with UAVs and satellites.

The programme is estimated to cost between ₹57,000 crore and ₹60,000 crore.

‘Tanks are adapting, not disappearing’

Lieutenant General (retd.) Dushyant Singh, director general of the Centre for Land Warfare Studies (CLAWS), said no single template applies to every conflict.

“In the India-Pakistan context, territory remains central. Neither side will voluntarily surrender land. Likewise, the Iran-U.S. conflict demonstrates that unless territory is physically occupied, victory remains incomplete. Air strikes and missiles are effective for punitive action and destroying military assets, but controlling land requires boots on the ground. Legacy platforms such as tanks remain relevant despite advances in drones and missiles,” he said.

He noted that Russia has managed to seize and hold territory in Ukraine because it possesses both infantry and armoured formations.

According to him, tanks now require dedicated anti-drone protection and integrated air defence support. Obstacles such as canals and layered defensive lines also complicate armoured operations.

Singh emphasised that future warfare will increasingly rely on integrated multi-domain operations involving the Army, Air Force and Navy, supported by cyber warfare, economic measures and maritime power.

He added that military history demonstrates a continuous cycle of technological innovation and countermeasures.

“Whenever one weapon system appears dominant, countermeasures eventually emerge. Tanks will continue adapting through technological innovation and remain relevant,” Singh said.

Role has changed, not ended

Globally, tanks no longer dominate battlefields in the way they did between the Second World War and the end of the Cold War. Cheap drones have significantly reduced their ability to operate independently. Yet they have not become obsolete.

India is introducing an entirely new class of tanks because its principal armoured challenge lies not on drone-saturated plains but in the high Himalayas, where altitude, mobility and transportability determine operational success.

The Zorawar is designed to address a uniquely Indian strategic requirement that many Western militaries do not face. The tank is no longer the undisputed king of the battlefield. But it remains something even more enduring: an indispensable component of combined-arms warfare.

In a battlefield increasingly dominated by drones, guided missiles and precision weapons capable of destroying multi-million-dollar armoured vehicles within seconds, tanks continue to provide one capability that no drone can replicate: the ability to physically seize, occupy and hold ground. Ultimately, wars are won not only by destroying the enemy but by controlling territory. And for that, boots on the ground, supported by tanks, remain indispensable.

saurabh.trivedi@thehindu.co.in

Edited by Rohit Paniker

In 2024, India witnessed some of the most path-breaking achievements, ranging from border disengagement with China along the Line of Actual Control to the first test flight of the new variant Light Combat Aircraft (LCA) Tejas Mk1A to the testing of a hypersonic missile. The country’s defence and security apparatus evolved in the land, sea, air, and space sectors.

Here are the top milestones in India’s defence and security apparatus

Border Disengagement With China 

In October, the Centre announced that India and China had agreed upon the “last phase of disengagement” regarding patrolling arrangements in the Depsang and Demchok regions. The former is in northern Ladakh, while the latter is in the east. The areas, along with others like the Pangong Tso, Galwan Valley, and Gogra Hotsprings have been points of contention over varying perceptions of the boundary line.

In 2020, the troops of the nuclear-armed countries clashed in the Galwan Valley in which 20 Indian soldiers and an officer were killed in action. The troops disengaged from most of the regions but Depsang and Demchok remained contentious. 

External Affairs Minister S Jaishankar confirmed the big announcement of disengagement at the NDTV World Summit that day and said “We reached an agreement on patrolling, and we have gone back to the 2020 position. With that, we can say the disengagement with China has been completed… There are areas which, for various reasons after 2020, they blocked us, we blocked them. We have now reached an understanding which will allow patrolling as we had been doing till 2020.”

A month later in November, the Indian Army today “successfully completed” patrolling to one of the patrol points in the Depsang region of Ladakh following the consensus.

Mission Divyastra

In March, India successfully conducted the first flight test of Multiple Independently Targetable Re-entry Vehicles (MIRV) with the Agni-5 Intercontinental Ballistic Missile. The Defence Research and Development Organisation (DRDO) conducted a successful test of the MIRV technology which was in development for several years, putting India on an elite list of nations that have the capability.

Scientists at DRDO have been working on Multiple Independently Targetable Re-entry Vehicles (MIRV) technologies for many years. The technology allows a single missile like the Agni-5 to carry multiple warheads and independently target locations. The system developed by DRDO is equipped with indigenous Avionics systems and high-accuracy sensor packages, which ensure that the re-entry vehicles reach the target points within the desired accuracy.

Agni-5 is an Intercontinental Ballistic Missile (ICBM) that goes into space before re-entering the atmosphere. 

‘Project Zorawar’ – India’s Response To China In Ladakh

In July, the Defence Research and Development Organisation (DRDO) and Larsen & Toubro (L&T) developed a light tank in a record two years, catering to the Army’s need for a high-altitude light tank to counter China’s ZQ-15 in Ladakh.

The tank was put to an advanced stage of trials and will be inducted soon. The light tank Zorawar weighs 25 tonnes. It is the first time, a fresh tank has been designed and made ready for trials in such a short time.

Around 59 of these tanks will be provided to the Army initially and it will be a front runner for the major programme of 295 more of these armoured vehicles.

Tejas MK1A Was Airborne

On March 28, Group Captain K K Venugopal (retired), a Chief Test Pilot with Hindustan Aeronautics Limited, took the first aircraft of the Tejas MK1A series, to the skies, staying airborne for 18 minutes. It was a huge milestone in India’s LCA project which seeks to replace the existing fleet of MiGs and other old aircraft in the Indian Air Force

“The Tejas Mk1A will have an advanced electronic RADAR, warfare and communication systems, additional combat capability and improved maintenance features,” the HAL said.

The Indian Air Force has ordered 83 Tejas Mk1A variants in a Rs 36,468 crore deal with Hindustan Aeronautics Limited. In November last year, the Defence Acquisition Council cleared the project to acquire 97 more Tejas jets for the Indian Air Force.

Commissioning of INS Arighaat 

On August 29, India commissioned INS Arighaat, the second of the Arihant-class nuclear-powered ballistic missile submarine, into service.

The submarine will strengthen India’s nuclear triad, enhance nuclear deterrence, help in establishing strategic balance and peace in the region, and play a decisive role in the security of the country.

The country’s nuclear submarine has the distinction of having indigenous systems and equipment which were conceptualised, designed, manufactured and integrated by Indian scientists, industry and naval personnel, the defence ministry said.

Nuclear Missile Test Firing

A few months later after the commissioning of INS Arighaat, India test-fired a nuclear submarine-launched ballistic missile with a range of 3,500 km. The K-4 missile was launched in November and will provide India with a second-strike capability. 

It underpinned India’s nuclear triad capability, putting it in a small group of countries that can fire a nuclear missile from land, air and undersea.

According to reports, it was the first test of the submarine-launched ballistic missile (SLBM) from a submarine.

Hypersonic Missile Test

In November, India successfully test-fired a long-range hypersonic missile from the APJ Abdul Kalam Island off the coast of Odisha. 

Defence Minister Rajnath Singh described the test-firing of the missile as a historic moment as it put India in the group of select nations having the capabilities to develop such critical technologies.

The @DRDO_India has successfully conducted a flight trial of its long range hypersonic missile on 16th Nov 2024 from Dr APJ Abdul Kalam Island, off-the-coast of Odisha.

Raksha Mantri Shri @rajnathsingh has congratulated DRDO, Armed Forces and the Industry for successful flight… pic.twitter.com/wq7yM2YS9f

— रक्षा मंत्री कार्यालय/ RMO India (@DefenceMinIndia) November 17, 2024

He congratulated the Defence Research and Development Organisation (DRDO), the armed forces and the industry for what he described as a “stupendous” achievement.

Commissioning Of Navy’s New Choppers

In March, a squadron of MH-60 Romeo helicopters was commissioned at INS Garuda, a naval air station and also the “cradle of naval aviation” in Kochi. The Indian Naval Air Squadron (INAS) 334 is the latest air squadron of the Navy and home for MH-60R, the submarine hunters. Captain M Abhisheik Ram will be the commanding officer of the INAS 334 squadron. 

MH-60R, manufactured by Lockheed Martin and Sikorsky, is the naval variant of the US Blackhawk helicopter, is one of the most potent anti-submarine choppers currently operational in the world and is considered a game changer due to its anti-submarine/surface capabilities and command, and control capabilities. 

India ordered 24 MH-60Rs in a $905 million government-to-government deal with the US. Two choppers were formally handed over to the Indian Navy by its US counterpart in 2021. 

C295 Aircraft Manufacturing Facility

Prime Minister Modi and his Spanish President Pedro Sanchez jointly inaugurated the TATA Aircraft Complex for manufacturing C-295 transport aircraft at TATA Advanced Systems Limited Campus in Gujarat’s Vadodara in October 2024. 

The C-295 is a transport aircraft of 5-10 tonne capacity with contemporary technology that will replace the Indian Air Force’s ageing Avro-748 planes.

In September 2021, India signed a Rs 21,935-crore contract with Airbus Defence and Space SA, Spain for the supply of 56 aircraft – 16 to be brought in fly-away condition from Spain and 40 to be built in India by TASL. Of the 16 aircraft, six have already been inducted into IAF at 11 Sqn based at Vadodara. 

The last would be delivered by August 2025. The first Made-in-India C-295 is expected to be rolled out of the Final Assembly Line facility at Vadodara by September 2026 and the remaining by August 2031.

Test Firing Of Rudram-II

In May, India successfully test-fired an air-surface anti-radiation missile from a Su-30MKI fighter jet. The Rudram-II anti-radiation supersonic missile is developed by the Defence Research and Development Organisation (DRDO).

The Rudram-II is the latest version after the mark-1 version was tested four years ago by Su-30MKI, the backbone of India’s fighter fleet.

The flight test met all the trial objectives, validating the propulsion system and control & guidance algorithm. Rudram missile is the first indigenously developed anti-radiation missile designed to target enemy ground radars (surveillance, tracking) and communication stations in Suppression of  Enemy Air Defence (SEAD) missions. 

Rudram-II is one of the finest and is meant to neutralise many types of enemy assets. India currently operates the Russian Kh-31, an anti-radiation missile. The Rudram missiles will replace the Kh-31s.